Objective 1:
Know the bones in the skeleton:

Parietal Bone
Clavicle - Also known as the collar bone, its found above the ribs and in front of the scapula.
Frontal Bone - Front of the skull or cranium
Maxilla- upper jaw bone
Mandible - lower jaw bone
Sternum - Found in the middle of the rib cage.
Thorax (ribs)
Humorous - Upper Arm Bone
Scapula - also known as the shoulder blade
Femur - upper leg bone
Tibia
Fibula
Patella - knee cap



Describe the parts of a long bone
Diaphysis: the shaft, the long cylindrical part of bone
Epiphyses: distal and proximal ends of bone (where growth occurs)
Periosteum: tough membrane made of dense irregular connective tissue that surrounds the bone. Helps with Protection, repair of fractures, nourishment and a place for ligaments and tendons to attatch.

Medullary cavity: hollow place in diaphysis
Epiphyseal plate: area of hyaline cartilage, allows diaphysis to continue growing in length. Cartilage is replaced with compact bone which now is called the Epiphyseal line. This is when the bone stops growing.
Articular cartilage: a thin layer of hyaline cartilage covering the part of the epiphysis where the bone forms a joint with another point

Describe the microscopic structure of bone tissue
Compact Bone
Chondroblast: Cartilage secreting cells
Osteoblast: Bone secreting cells
Osteocytes: Bone cells that maintain homeostasis
Osteoclasts: Bone breaking cells
Provides strength and protection, makes up the most dense part of the bone.
-Osteon/Haversion System: the repeating unit that makes up the compact bone
-Haversion Canal: the central canal of an osteon through which blood vessels, nerves and lymph vessels travel.
-Volksmanns Canal: a canal through which blood vessels run horizontally and connect to Haversion Canals.
-Lacunae: small spaces between the lamellae that contain osteocytes.
-Lamellae: concentric rings of hard, calcified extracellular matrix, secreted from osteoblasts
-Canaliculae: very small channels through the extracellular matrix that connect osteocytes.
Spongy Bone
Makes red bone marrow. The site of blood cell production in adults. Light, supports and protects red bone marrow.
Trabeculae ("Little beams"): the latticework of columns within bone.
Red bone marrow: Fills the empty spaces between the trabeculae. The trabeculae align precisely with the lines of stress in the bone.
Takes up most of the space of short, flat, irregularly shaped bones. Also found in the epiphysis of long bones.


Describe the factors that affect bone growth during a persons lifetime, including fractures
Factors Affecting Bone Growth
Adequate minerals: strengthens and maintains strength. (Vitamins A,C,D)
Human Growth Hormone: secreted when body needs to grow
Exercise: weight barring exercise

Fractures
Partial: also known as a green break which is when the bone slightly breaks off and then shifts up.
Complete: A complete break is when the bone breaks in two.
Closed(simple): broken bone is maintained within skin
Open(compound): bone breaks through the surface of the skin.


Describe how exercise affects bone tissue
The more that you exercise, the denser the bone tissue will be in the specific areas you exercise. e.g- people who box will use punching bags to make their knuckles denser and therefore able to withstand more contact. Also kick boxers who use shins to attack opposing boxers have unusually dense shins that enable them to withstand the hardest of knocks. This is why you need to do weight bearing exercise such as running, because instead of specific bone use it uses a lot of different bones. This is especially good for people with osteperosis.

Identify the principal structural differences between male and female skeletons

-On a man's hand the fourth finger is typically longer than the second. On a woman's the second is longer than the fourth.
-Men are generally bigger (height-wise), and many of their bones are longer.
-Men and women have the same number of ribs. (Count them on a skeleton.)

The high levels of testosterone that appear in boys at puberty help lengthen and rugged'ise their still developing bones, enhancing and developing male skeletal characteristics such greater height and narrower pelvic width. The near absence in girls of these hormones prevents such skeletal developments; indeed the presence of high levels of oestrogen in a pubertal girl probably helps stimulate the growth and shape of her pelvic bones, but otherwise actually act to limit bone growth and final adult height.
Despite the sex related differences, overall the differences between the skeletons of male and female bodies are actually surprisingly small compared with the similarities.

Differentiate between pronation and supination

One thing to know is that everybody pronates or supinates to a certain degree, but excessive of either can cause problems.

Pronation: What happens is when we walk or run, the arch in our foot will flatten to absorb shock and to provide us with balance. In some ways pronation enables you to run better but too much of this movement is called overpronation which is when the foot will shift inwards more than the ideal 5 percent and this can be problematic not only to the ankle but to the knees as well.At the end of the cycle, the foot pushes off unevenly using the big toe and the second toe, making them do all the work, and not giving a good transfer of energy allowing the next step to have a good push off start.

Supination: Supination is the opposite of pronation. It is when the foot does not shift inwards enough (less than the ideal 5%) to absorb the shock of the heel-toe movement. Supination is less common than pronation. Using the right shoes will decrease pain and injuries. An easy way to remember supination is that it is that when you have supination your ankles are 'tipped' to the outside and your weight is going on the outside of your foot. (also can have supination in the forearm)

-Understanding your personal pronation or supination is crucial to choosing what type of shoes to use for sports, especially sports where you run a lot.
-Pronation and Supination is the body's natural way to absorb shock allowing the foot to work as a lever.