Human Biology & Sports Science - Recently Updated Pages

Unit 3 Skeletal System

Anonymous — Mon, 30 Jun 2008 12:43:29 CDT

Objective 1:
Know the bones in the skeleton:

Parietal Bone
Clavicle - Also known as the collar bone, its found above the ribs and in front of the scapula.
Frontal Bone - Front of the skull or cranium
Maxilla- upper jaw bone
Mandible - lower jaw bone
Sternum - Found in the middle of the rib cage.
Thorax (ribs)
Humorous - Upper Arm Bone

Ulna

Radius

Carpals (wrist)

Metacarpals - The hands

Phalanges - These are the bones in your fingertips.

Scapula - also known as the shoulder blade
Femur - upper leg bone
Tibia
Fibula
Patella - knee cap

Describe the parts of a long bone
Diaphysis: the shaft, the long cylindrical part of bone
Epiphyses: distal and proximal ends of bone (where growth occurs)
Periosteum: tough membrane made of dense irregular connective tissue that surrounds the bone. Helps with Protection, repair of fractures, nourishment and a place for ligaments and tendons to attatch.

Medullary cavity: hollow place in diaphysis
Epiphyseal plate: area of hyaline cartilage, allows diaphysis to continue growing in length. Cartilage is replaced with compact bone which now is called the Epiphyseal line. This is when the bone stops growing.
Articular cartilage: a thin layer of hyaline cartilage covering the part of the epiphysis where the bone forms a joint with another point

Describe the microscopic structure of bone tissue
Compact Bone
Chondroblast: Cartilage secreting cells
Osteoblast: Bone secreting cells
Osteocytes: Bone cells that maintain homeostasis
Osteoclasts: Bone breaking cells
Provides strength and protection, makes up the most dense part of the bone.
-Osteon/Haversion System: the repeating unit that makes up the compact bone
-Haversion Canal: the central canal of an osteon through which blood vessels, nerves and lymph vessels travel.
-Volksmanns Canal: a canal through which blood vessels run horizontally and connect to Haversion Canals.
-Lacunae: small spaces between the lamellae that contain osteocytes.
-Lamellae: concentric rings of hard, calcified extracellular matrix, secreted from osteoblasts
-Canaliculae: very small channels through the extracellular matrix that connect osteocytes.
Spongy Bone
Makes red bone marrow. The site of blood cell production in adults. Light, supports and protects red bone marrow.
Trabeculae ("Little beams"): the latticework of columns within bone.
Red bone marrow: Fills the empty spaces between the trabeculae. The trabeculae align precisely with the lines of stress in the bone.
Takes up most of the space of short, flat, irregularly shaped bones. Also found in the epiphysis of long bones.

Describe the factors that affect bone growth during a persons lifetime, including fractures
Factors Affecting Bone Growth
Adequate minerals: strengthens and maintains strength. (Vitamins A,C,D)
Human Growth Hormone: secreted when body needs to grow
Exercise: weight barring exercise

Fractures
Partial: also known as a green break which is when the bone slightly breaks off and then shifts up.
Complete: A complete break is when the bone breaks in two.
Closed(simple): broken bone is maintained within skin
Open(compound): bone breaks through the surface of the skin.

Describe how exercise affects bone tissue
The more that you exercise, the denser the bone tissue will be in the specific areas you exercise. e.g- people who box will use punching bags to make their knuckles denser and therefore able to withstand more contact. Also kick boxers who use shins to attack opposing boxers have unusually dense shins that enable them to withstand the hardest of knocks. This is why you need to do weight bearing exercise such as running, because instead of specific bone use it uses a lot of different bones. This is especially good for people with osteperosis.

Identify the principal structural differences between male and female skeletons

-On a man's hand the fourth finger is typically longer than the second. On a woman's the second is longer than the fourth.
-Men are generally bigger (height-wise), and many of their bones are longer.
-Men and women have the same number of ribs. (Count them on a skeleton.)

The high levels of testosterone that appear in boys at puberty help lengthen and rugged'ise their still developing bones, enhancing and developing male skeletal characteristics such greater height and narrower pelvic width. The near absence in girls of these hormones prevents such skeletal developments; indeed the presence of high levels of oestrogen in a pubertal girl probably helps stimulate the growth and shape of her pelvic bones, but otherwise actually act to limit bone growth and final adult height.
Despite the sex related differences, overall the differences between the skeletons of male and female bodies are actually surprisingly small compared with the similarities.

Differentiate between pronation and supination

One thing to know is that everybody pronates or supinates to a certain degree, but excessive of either can cause problems.

Pronation: What happens is when we walk or run, the arch in our foot will flatten to absorb shock and to provide us with balance. In some ways pronation enables you to run better but too much of this movement is called overpronation which is when the foot will shift inwards more than the ideal 5 percent and this can be problematic not only to the ankle but to the knees as well.At the end of the cycle, the foot pushes off unevenly using the big toe and the second toe, making them do all the work, and not giving a good transfer of energy allowing the next step to have a good push off start.

Supination: Supination is the opposite of pronation. It is when the foot does not shift inwards enough (less than the ideal 5%) to absorb the shock of the heel-toe movement. Supination is less common than pronation. Using the right shoes will decrease pain and injuries. An easy way to remember supination is that it is that when you have supination your ankles are 'tipped' to the outside and your weight is going on the outside of your foot. (also can have supination in the forearm)

-Understanding your personal pronation or supination is crucial to choosing what type of shoes to use for sports, especially sports where you run a lot.
-Pronation and Supination is the body's natural way to absorb shock allowing the foot to work as a lever.

Course Evaluation

Sheri_Chiu — Fri, 18 Jan 2008 09:48:14 CST

What did you like best about this course?

What would you change?

How did the second quarter compare to the first? Why?

Would you recommend this class to others?

How much does this evaulation have to do with how well you do on your final?

Evaluation #1
What did you like best about this course?

My favorite part about this course was the interactive activities we did like the heart dissection and especially the planning of a menu at the end of the course. I also liked how during lectures we were able to ask questions and clarify things as well as having more opportunities to learn through lectures and visuals rather than simply taking notes in from the textbook, which always seems to give you to much information to process.

What would you change?

I acutally don't think there's much that I would change when it came to the actual course presentation, maybe spend less time one earlier units so that the end isn't so rushed, and I also think it would be awesome to dissect a brain. But that's just me.

How did the second quarter compare to the first?

The second quarter seemed to be more intense, but in a good way. The information was more basic, while still informative, when the first quarter had been really detailed and in-depth.

Would you recommend this class to others?

I already have. Mostly because I learned a lot and not only did I learn a lot, but I was able to build some better friendships with people who I didn't previously know very well.

How much does this evaluation have to do with how well you do on your final?

Actually, not that much. Granted, I didn't do as well as I would have liked on the final, but I was able to keep a pretty strong grade throughout the quarter, so I wasn't terribly worried about what I got. I'm not especially happy about the grade that I got, but neither am I disappointed, so I guess that it really doesn't matter all that much. (Basically, the evaluation is not biased by my grade that I received)

Evaluation #2
What did you like best about this course?
I thoroughly enjoyed the experiments such as the heart and chicken wing dissection. I liked watching Bill Nye videos, and I found the PowerPoints and other visual aids very helpful.

What would you change?
I do not think the "Design Your Own Sports Shoe" was very helpful.

How did the second quarter compare to the first?
I enjoyed the second quarter more than I did the first because material was more specific and quizzes/tests covered the big ideas rather than minute details.

Would you recommend this class to others?
Definitely! The human body is amazing, as is this class.

How much does this evaluation have to do with how well you do on your final?
I'm happy with my grade, I'm happy about this evaluation, I'm just happy.

Unit 4 Muscular System

Sheri_Chiu — Sat, 05 Jan 2008 10:03:41 CST

1. Describe the types and functions of muscular tissue.

Skeletal
Found: on your skeleton
- Functions:
  - movement of the skeleton
  - attatched to the skeleton
  - Stabilizing body positions
  - striated, voluntary movements (voluntary means that it would tire easily Eg: The fist action)
  - Moving substances within body
Cardiac
Found: the wall on your heart
- Functions:
  - pumps the heart to send oxygen and blood to the body
  - contracts repeatedly
  - only found in heart
  - involuntary action (pumps all the time and does not tire easily), striated, intercolated discs
  - Moving substances within body
Smooth
Found: In your gastrointestinal tract, uterus, bladder, abdominal cavity, male and female reproduction tracts,
- Functions:
  - surrounds hollow tubes in the body (blood vessels, air waves, intestines, pores, etc)
  - non-striated, involuntary
  - Moving substances within body
  - Moves digestive juices (that's why sometimes you get heartburns)
  - Regulates organ volume
    - Sphincters

2. Explain how skeletal muscles contract and relax.
Contract:
1. Myosin heads on thick filaments hydrolyze ATP and become reorientated and energized
2. Myosin heads bind to actin of thin filaments, forming crossbridges
3. Myosin crossbridges rotate toward center of the sacromere (power stroke like rowing a boat) and shifts which causes the contraction. The overlap area increases and it moves only about 20nm.
4. As myosin heads bind ATP, the crossbridges detach from actin

In simpler words:

A nerve impulse is sent to the muscle fibers
Calcium is released from the sarcoplasmic reticulum and relaxes the filaments
Traconin and actin filaments unravel (relax and expands) and myosin head attaches
ATP is necessary: releases head from actin and powers the power stroke
calcium is taken back into the sarcoplasmic reticulum and the process begins again.

A muscle contraction occurs when a muscle fiber generates tension through the action of actin and myosin, that cross-bridge cycling. While under tension, the muscle might shorten or lengthen. Though contraction may be thought as a shortening process of the muscle fibers, however, the muscular system contraction refers to the general tension by muscle fibers.

3. Describe the sources of ATP and oxygen for muscle contraction.
ATP - supplies the energy and breaks off from the myosin head.
Normally, it would supply 1-3 secs of energy (when in resting motion)
When in high intensity, supplies less than 1 sec of energy
3 Sources:
1) Creatine Phophate
- 7-10 secs of supply; stored in muscle cells; found in red meat
2) Anaerobic Respiration
- No oxygen required; need glucose (glycogen); supplies about 30 secs
3) Aerobic Respiration
- Glucose, oxygen required, uses myoglobin
Mitochondria produces ATP, that is why you will find a surplus of mitochondria in muscle cells.

4. Describe how the frequency of stimulation and motor unit recruitment affect muscle tension.

When looking at muscle tension, the total tension can be produced is caused by the number of muscle fibers that contract in unison. When a muscle fibre contracts when it is not completely relaxed, the tension will be higher than the previous contraction where the muscle was relaxed. The more a muscle fibre is stimulated, the higher the tension.
A motor unit is muscle fibers that are stimulated by a motor neuron, which conducts impulses from the brain to the spinal column and into spinal nerves which stimulate the muscle fibers. Motor unit recruitment is where the number of motor units that are contracting increase. Usually while some motor units are contracting, others relax. This helps the muscle fatigue slowly and move smoothly.

5. Compare the three types of skeletal muscle fibers.
There are two types of muscle tissues that account for an individuals athletic performance. Fast glycolytic (FG) are muscles tissues that usually deals with intense amount of activity over a short period. Slow ative (SO) fibers deal with endurance sports. The total number of skeletal muscle fibers usually does not increase, but the characteristics of the present can change to some extent. Varying from the type of exercise, FG can become FOG (Fast Oxidative-Glycolytic) fibers which show larger diameter, number of mitochondria, blood suply, and strength, if endurance exercises were done. On the other hand, exercise for the great intensity in a short period of time, produces FOG fibers that are larger in size, due to synthesis of thick and thin filaments.

6. Distinguish between isotonic and isometric contractions.
Isotonic Aforce is generated and muscles shorten: muscle fibers shorten to produce the same amount of tension against a constant load. This is the contraction and movement of muscles with a constant load.
Isometric A force is generated but muscles do not shorten: muscle fibers produce tension against a load that prevents shortening. It is like trying to pull up an immovable object.

7. Identify the effects of exercise on skeletal muscle tissue.
Exercise can cause Delayed Onset Muscle Soreness (DOMS) which is believed to be caused as a result of tiny tears in the muscle fibers by eccentric contraction. DOMS can occur from 1-3 days after exercising, and the soreness typically lasts for no longer than 3 days. The soreness can also come from a buildup of lactic acid. Lactic acid froms when the body is using up more oxygen than it can take in, so the muscles respirate anareobically, this process produces lactic acid which can give a burning feeling.

· Endurance type exercises cause the change of FG fibers to fast oxidative fibers. · The transformation causes the increase diameter, blood supply, strength, and the number of mitochondria · Cadusavolar and repertory caused muscles to receive more oxygen and nutrients but does not increase the mass · Exercises that uses a lot of strength causes an increases the size and strength of FG fibers · The increase of size is caused by the synthesis of thin and thick filiments · Muscle hypertrophy is the overall result

8. Describe how skeletal muscles cooperate to produce movement.
Flexion: decrease in the angle of the joint
Extension: increase in the angle of the joint
When one muscle is flexing, another is extending. Ex-when you are flexing your biceps, your triceps are extending.
The contracting muscle is known as the agonist and the relaxing muscle is known as the antagonist.
Abduction : carry an appendage away from midline
Adduction : brings an appendage back to the midline
Elevation : raise a part
Depression : lower a part
Rotation : turns on part around another.

9. Identify and name various skeletal muscles.

Unit 5 Cardiovascular System

PaulNettleton — Sat, 01 Dec 2007 03:21:26 CST

1. Describe the functions of blood.

Transportation:
- O2, CO2 etc.
- Water, urea etc.
- Hormones
- Enzymes
- Nutrients (sugar, fats, amino acids etc.)
- Blood cells

Maintain Body Temp:
- Keeps the body warm. Normal temperature: 98.6 degrees Fahrenheit
Controls pH levels:
- pH in blood must be 6.8 to 7.4 or else cells will be damaged.

Removal of wastes
-carbon dioxide, urea, lactic acid

Protection
-White blood cells protect against infection
-Blood clotting

2. Describe the components of blood.

A) Red Blood Cells (erythrocytes)

Males have about 5.4 million, Females have about 4.8 million
hemoglobin carries oxygen and some CO2

B) White Blood Cells (leukocytes) - defend body against infection

Neutrophils - A type of white blood cell, specifically a form of granulocyte, filled with neutrally-staining granules which are tiny sacs of enzymes that help the cell to kill microorganisms. The neutrophil has a lifespan of roughly 3 days. Composes of seventy percent of all white blood cells

Lymphocytes - a type of white blood cell - characterized by a dark nucleus that leaves little room for cytoplasm - an increase in lymphocytes indicates a viral infection.

Monocytes - a type of white blood cell - uses phagocytosis
has a large bilobate nucleus

C) Plasma - liquid component of blood
helps regulate body temperature
RBC, WBC, platelets are suspended
About 55% of total blood volume
92% water, 8% plasma proteins

D) Platelets (thrombocytes) - involved in hemostasis that assist in blood clotting
release chemicals that promote vascular spasm and clotting

3. Explain blood clotting.

When blood vessels are cut or damaged they must be stopped before shock or possible death, the body does this through a method called coagulation or clotting. Blood clotting consists of platelets that come together in a network of insoluble fibrin molecules.
Platelet aggregation and fibrin formation require and enzyme thrombin.
Blood clotting is part of homeostasis where the platelets go to the injury and release fibrin to seal the injury and begins repairs. Blood clotting involves cellular and protein components and when a cut occurs; platelets immediately make a hemostatic plug (unmoving blood) which is called primary hemostasis.

Coagulation is a complex process by which blood forms solid clots. It is an important part of hemostasis (the cessation of blood loss from a damaged vessel) whereby a damaged blood vessel wall is covered by a platelet - and fibrin-containing clot to stop bleeding and begin repair of the damaged vessel. Disorders of coagulation can lead to an increased risk of bleeding and/or clotting and embolism.

Coagulation is initiated almost instantly after an injury to the blood vessel damages the endothelium (lining of the vessel). Platelets immediately form a hemostatic plug at the site of injury; this is called primary hemostasis. Secondary hemostasis occurs simultaneously—proteins in the blood plasma, called coagulation factors, respond in a complex cascade to form fibrin strands which strengthen the platelet plug.

Clotting put simply: A blood vessel is damaged and a vascular spasm occurs. This is when the walls of the vessel will contract to minimize the amount of blood loss. Platelets will attatch themselves to the damaged walls and release a chemical which in turn attracts more and more platelets to create a protein plug. These platelets release chemicals that react with the proteins in the plasma and fibrin strands are formed to strengthen the platelet plug.

4. Understand blood typing.

If a person is infused with blood that is not their type, the blood in the body will reject the infused blood and there will be severe amounts of blood clotting occurring.

5. Explain the tools and techniques used for diagnosis of heart diseases.

Electrocardiogram (EKG or ECG): Uses electrical impulses to measure the beating of the heart. Shows how fast the heart is beating.
- What it reveals: heart attack, lack of blood flow to the heart muscle, heart that is beating irregularly, a heart that is not pumping forcefully enough.

6. Identify symptoms of a selection of heart diseases.

Coronary Artery Disease :
- Narrowing or blockage of coronary arteries.
- Major reason for heart attacks
- Symptoms and signs are noted in the advanced state of disease
- Most individuals show no evidence of Coronary Artery Disease for decades as the disease progresses
before the first onset of symptoms, often a "sudden" heart attack, finally arise

Symptoms:
- Angina (Heart Pain)
- Nausea
- Dizziness
- Fast or irregular heartbeat
- "cold sweat"
- Difficulty breathing

Congenital Heart Disease :
-Heart disease in a newborn child - includes structural defects
- CHD occurs when the heart or blood vessels near the heart does not develop properly before birth.
- Also the blood flow is obstructed in the heart of the vessels nearby, causing an abnormal flow of blood through
the heart. Blood flow obstructions put a strain on the heart muscle causing the heart to work harder and beat
faster.
- May cause problems over time, such as certain kinds of valve problems, transposition disorders, holes in the
heart, and abnormalities of the heart's major veins and arteries.

Symptoms:
- Shortness of breath
- Ability to exercise limited

Heart Failure: Congestive heart failure, congestive cardiac failure, or just heart failure, is a condition that can result from any structural or functional cardiac disorder that impairs the ability of the heart to fill with or pump a sufficient amount of blood through the body. Because not all patients have volume overload at the time of initial or subsequent evaluation, the term "heart failure" is preferred over the older term "congestive heart failure".

Congestive heart failure is often undiagnosed due to a lack of a universally agreed definition and difficulties in diagnosis, particularly when the condition is considered "mild". Even with the best therapy, heart failure is associated with an annual mortality of 10%. It is the leading cause of hospitalization in people older than 65.

Hypertensive Heart Disease: Hypertensive heart disease is any of a number of complications of arterial hypertension that affect the heart. It is one of the most common causes of death in western societies.

Valvular Heart Disease: Valvular heart disease is any disease process involving one or more valves of the heart.

Symptoms:
- Chest discomfort
- Limited ability to exert
- Rapid heart beat

7. Describe the anatomy of a human heart.
Describe the Functions of Blood
Transportation: Oxygen and Carbon dioxide from the lungs to cells in the body, Nutrients from the gastrional tract to body cells, heat and waster products away from the cells, hormones to the other parts of the cells

Anatomy of the Heart
Superior Vena Cava: Oxygen-poor blood from the upper parts of the body returns to the heart through the superior vena cava. Aorta: Largest artery, carries oxygen-rich blood from the heart to the rest of the body. Pulmonary Arteries: carry blood from the heart to the lungs to pick up oxygen. Left atrium: collects oxygen-rich blood returning from the lungs then forces it through the mitral valve into the left ventricle. Aortic valve: Controls blood flow from the left ventricle into the aorta. Left Ventricle: largest, strongest chamber. Walls are ½inch thick, but can push blood through aortic valve and into the body. Right Ventricle: collects oxygen-poor blood from the right atrium, forces it through the pulmonary valve into the lungs. Inferior vena cava: oxygen-poor blood from lower parts of the body returns to the heart through the inferior vena cava. Tricuspid valve: controls blood flow from the right atrium into the right ventricle. Right atrium: oxygen-poor blood returning from the body, forces it through tricuspid valve and into the right ventricle. Pulmonary Veins: carry oxygen-rich blood from lungs back to the heart.

8. Explain how blood flows through the heart

Right Side		Left Side
Blood enters the heart through two large veins, the inferior and superior vena cava, emptying oxygen-poor blood from the body into the right atrium.		The pulmonary vein empties oxygen-rich blood, from the lungs into the left atrium.
Atrial contraction: blood flows from your right atrium into your right ventricle through the open tricuspid valve. When the ventricles are full, the tricuspid valve shuts. This prevents blood from flowing backward into the atria while the ventricles contract (squeeze).		Atrial contraction: blood flows from your left atrium into your left ventricle through the open mitral valve. When the ventricles are full, the mitral valve shuts. This prevents blood from flowing backward into the atria while the ventricles contract (squeeze).
Ventricular contraction: blood leaves the heart through the pulmonic valve, into the pulmonary artery and to the lungs.		Ventricular contraction: blood leaves the heart through the aortic valve, into the aorta and to the body.
This pattern is repeated over and over, causing blood to flow continuously to the heart, lungs and body.

9. Measure heart rate and blood pressure.
To measure blood pressure you wrap a blood pressure cuff around the inside of your arm, around the elbow. You then place a stethoscope under the cuff. By squeezing the pressure bulb you increase the pressure and then let it out slowly, listening for the pressure at which you begin to hear the heartbeat, record this. Record again the pressure at which you stop hearing the heart beat.

10. Identify the components of blood using a microscope.
- Red Blood Cells (erythrocytes)
- White blood cells (leukocytes)
- Plasma
- Platelets

11. Compare the structure and function of the different types of blood vessels
a) arteries- The aorta is largest artery. They have thick wall that are very muscular and it moves blood away from the heart.
b) arterioles- A smaller artery that also moves blood away from the heart.
c) capillaries- Only the tunica intima. It branches off into very small blood vessels that contain no smooth muscle.
d) venules- Returns blood to the heart. They are porous so that WBC can leave and attack bacteria.
e) veins- Thinner with not much muscle that returns blood back to the heart.

12. Explain a disorder of the heart after research.
1. Ventricular Fibrillation (VF):
This is a sudden cardiac death, caused by ventricular fibrillation. This poses the greatest threat and accounts for half of all cardiac deaths. The heartbeat is rapid and chaotic,which causes the lower heart chambers, or ventricles, to go into a spasm. Sometimes a heart attack can lead to VF. VF is abrupt and happens without any warning and it halts all heart functioning.The lack of oxygen throughout the body, and especially to the brain, is deadly. Also known as cardiac arrest, sudden cardiac death is due to an electrical circuitry problem. It is not as the same as a heart attack, or myocardial infarction,which is a circulatory problem caused by clogged blood vessels that cut off the supply of blood to the heart.

13. Explain the relationship between exercise and the heart
Aerobics are any activity that works large body muscles for at least 20 minutes, raises cardiac output and accelerates metabolic rate. Sustained activities that count as aerobics increases the oxygen demand of the muscles. With this demand, it should increase maximal cardiac output which increases the maximal rate of oxygen delivery to the tissues. Oxygen delivery also rises because of skeletal muscles develop more capillary networks. Regular exercise also helps to stop reduce in blood pressure, anxiety, and depression; control weight; and increase body's ability to dissolve blood clots by increasing fibrinolythe.

Cardio Mind Benderama #1

090882 — Wed, 28 Nov 2007 07:49:21 CST

Julie was all flustered when she ran into her anatomy and physiology lab. She had spilled a cup of coffee on herself while she was weaving in and out of traffic while trying to get around a traffic jam. Then she missed her exit while she was changing the station on the radio, couldn't find a place to park, and missed the lab quiz. The lab today is learning to take blood pressures, and Julies is high!(It's normally 110 over 70.) What is the physiological explanation for Julie's elevated BP? What might be some results of a regularly elevated BP?

Blood Pressure: the force of blood against the walls of blood vessels
Systolic pressure represents the pressure while the heart contracts
Diastolic pressure represents the pressure when the heart relaxes between beats
Normal blood pressure for adults is 120/80 mmHg

High blood pressure (or hypertension) is defined in an adult as a blood pressure greater than or equal to 140 mm Hg systolic pressure or greater than or equal to 90 mm Hg diastolic pressure.

Causes for high BP (which can be changed/controlled):
1) tumors or diseases to do with the adrenal gland
2) narrowing of the aorta
3)Pregnancy
4)Alcohol addiction
5)use of birth control pills
6)Thyroid Dysfunction
Additional causes of high blood pressure are things such as kidney disease or even tumors (like those in the adrenal gland). The only test for high blood pressure is by blood pressure measurement.
7.) Another cause could be the level of stress and nervousness( white coat hypertension.)
8.) Sometimes what you eat and drink can effect your blood pressure. This is why it is best to take your blood pressure right when you wake up.

Causes which cannot be changed:
1)Age: generally among middle-aged and elderly people. When you get older, you develop high blood pressure.
2)Race: African Americans have higher blood pressure then Caucasians
3)Social Economic Status: Poorer/less educated/lower social groups, people usually have higher blood pressure
4)Family History (heredity): high blood pressure runs in the family
5)Gender: Males usually have higher blood pressure

Obese people (are 2-6 times more likely to get high blood pressure than those who are in healthy form) , heavy drinkers, women taking birth control pills, people with diabetes mellitus, gout or kidney disease are more likely to have high blood pressure, too.

Symptoms/Causes:
1)Headaches
2)Dizziness
3)Nausea
4)Fatigue
5)Blurred vision
6)Facial flushing

Uncontrolled high blood pressure can lead to stroke, coronary heart disease (which can lead to heart attack), heart failure or kidney failure. Also peripheral artery disease, and aortic aneurysms.

Treatment:
The treatment of high blood pressure is simple, most doctors will ask patients to make changes in their lifestyle. Some changes include: losing weight if you are overweight, following a heart healthy diet, engage in physical activity everyday, limit the amount of sodium consumed, limit alcohol, and quit smoking.

There are also several medications that can treat high blood pressure. These medications include: Diuretics, Beta blockers, Calcium channel blockers, Alpha-beta blockers, ACE (angiotention-converting enzyme) inhibitors.

*It is of utmost importance to realize that high blood pressure can be unrecognized for years, causing no symptoms but causing progressive damage to the heart, other organs, and blood vessels.

Musculo Mind Benderama #1

090882 — Sun, 25 Nov 2007 01:25:09 CST

What are steroids? What do they look like? What do the molecules look like? What are they supposed to do for you? What are their side effects?

What are Steroids?

Anabolic-androgenic steroids are man-made substances related to male sex hormones. “Anabolic” refers to muscle-building, and “androgenic” refers to increased masculine characteristics. “Steroids” refers to the class of drugs. These drugs are available legally only by prescription, to treat conditions that occur when the body produces abnormally low amounts of testosterone, such as delayed puberty and some types of impotence. They are also prescribed to treat body wasting in patients with AIDS and other diseases that result in loss of lean muscle mass. Abuse of anabolic steroids, however, can lead to serious health problems, some irreversible.

Anabolic steroids, also known as anabolic-androgenic steroids or AAS, are a class of steroid hormones related to the hormone testosterone. They increase protein synthesis within cells, which results in the buildup of cellular tissue anabolism), especially in muscles. Anabolic steroids also have androgenic virilizing properties, including the development and maintenance of masculine vocal cords and and ( characteristics such as the growth of the body hair.

Today, athletes and others abuse anabolic steroids to enhance performance and also to improve physical appearance. Anabolic steroids are taken orally or injected, typically in cycles of weeks or months (referred to as “cycling”), rather than continuously. Cycling involves taking multiple doses of steroids over a specific period of time, stopping for a period, and starting again. In addition, users often combine several different types of steroids to maximize their effectiveness while minimizing negative effects (referred to as “stacking”).

Steroid is a classification of a type of drug that relates to male sex hormones. Athletes use anabolic steroids to increase performance levels and enhance their physical appearance.

Anabolic steroids were first isolated, identified and synthesized in the 1930s, and are now used therapeutically in medicine to stimulate bone growth and appetite, induce male puberty, and treat chronic wasting conditions, such as cancer and AIDS.

Steroids are anabolic, meaning that they promote anabolism (cell growth). Some examples of the anabolic effects of these hormones are increased protein synthesis from amino acids, increased appetite, increased bone remodeling and growth, and stimulation of bone marrow, which increases the production of red blood cells.
Second, these steroids are androgenic or virilizing, meaning in particular that they affect the development and maintenance of masculine characteristics. The biochemical functions of androgens such as testosterone are numerous.

There are three common forms in which anabolic steroids are administered: oral pills, injectable steroids, and skin patches. Oral administration is most convenient, but the steroid must be chemically modified so that the liver cannot break it down before it reaches the systemic circulation; these formulations can cause liver damage in high doses. Injectable steroids are typically administered into the muscle, not into the vein, to avoid sudden changes in the amount of the drug in the bloodstream. Transdermal patches (adhesive patches placed on the skin) may also be used to deliver a steady dose through the skin and into the bloodstream.

What do steroids look like?

Tablets: (must be modified so that the liver cannot break it down before it reaches the systemic circulation, can cause liver damage in hight doses)

Liquids (injectable through a needle):
Administered straight into the muscle, not into the veins, avoid sudden changes of drug in blood stream.

Gels:
Cream : Cortaid -->
Skin Patches: to provide constant flow of the steroid into the muscle and blood stream.

What do the molecules look like?

Lanosterol: C30H50O

Cholesterol: C27H46O

Testosterone: C19H28O2

Steroids vary in chemical structure, but a steroid is typically a terpenoid lipid characterized by a carbon skeleton with four fused rings, generally arranged in a 6-6-6-5 fashion. Most of them are made up of an Alcohol group too.

What are they supposed to do for you?
Anabolic steroids increase muscle and bone synthesis and there are natural and synthetic anabolic steroids. There are also glucocorticoides, which regulate aspects of metabolism and help maintain blood volume in addition to immune system functions.

Athletes such as body builders, long distance runners, cyclists, and others, believe it enhances sports performance and help improve their physical appearance. However, a lot of these athletes use them illicitly.

There are many different types of steroids like Sex steroids Corticosteroids Anabolic steroids etc.
For e.g: sex steroids play important roles in inducing the body changes known as primary (internal hormones and specific sexual organs) and secondary (more physical changes) sex characteristics

What are their side effects?

The major side effects from abusing anabolic steroids can include liver tumors and cancer, jaundice (yellowish pigmentation of skin, tissues, and body fluids), fluid retention, high blood pressure, increases in LDL (bad cholesterol), and decreases in HDL (good cholesterol). Other side effects include kidney tumors, severe acne (because of the simulation of the sebaceous glands), sterility, irreversible connective tissue injury, aggressiveness, and trembling. In addition, there are some gender-specific side effects:

Men:shrinking of the testicles, reduced sperm count, infertility, baldness, development of breasts, and an increased risk for prostate cancer.

Women:growth of facial hair, male-pattern baldness, changes in or cessation of the menstrual cycle, enlargement of the clitoris, and deepened voice. Increase risk of cervical and endometrial cancer. Increase risk of osteoporosis. Decreased breast size. Amenorrhea and uterine atrophy.

Adolescents: growth is halted prematurely through premature skeletal maturation and accelerated puberty changes. This is because the growth plates in longs bones are ossified. Adolescents that take anabolic steroids before the typical adolescent growth spurt risk remaining short for the remainder of their lives.

Anabolic steroids, such as testosterone can cause cardiovascular disease or coronary artery disease, such as;
-enlargement/thickening of the left ventricle (impairs contraction and relaxation)
-Hypertension
-Cardiac Arrhythmia
-Congestive Heart Failure
-Heart Attacks
-Sudden Cardiac Death

Other Negative Side Effects:

Acne

Bloated appearance

Rapid weight gain

Clotting disorders

Liver disease and cancer

Premature heart attacks and strokes

Elevated cholesterol levels

Weakened tendons

Mood swings

Loss of appetite

Insomnia

Depression

Psychosis

Aggressive acts

Cardio vascular disease

Kidney disease and cancer

Risk of HIV and Hepatitis B&C (from constaminated needles)

Bad breath

Baldness

Water retention

Muscle cramps

Nose bleeds

Decrease immune system effectiveness

Infertility
*Anabolic Steroids can cause growth stunts in adolescents.

Famous Athletes, Steriod Users
Arnold Schwartzenegger, governor of CA, former bodybuilder who admitted to using anabolic steroids during his bodybuilding career.

Ben Johnson 1988, famous Canadian runner who set two world records for the 100-meter run.

Bo Jackson 1990, MLB player who broke his bat over his knee and shattered his femur in three places, and returned to the game in the following inning.

Sammy Sosa 2001, hit his chest with his trademark "double chest bump" after his 60th homerun of the season, but does so with enough force to stop his heart, restarting it with a second hit.

Barry Bonds, 2006, hit a 383-foot two-run homer in spring of 2006 while denying allegations of steroid use.

Assignments

mrBUXTON — Tue, 13 Nov 2007 02:39:46 CST

Class Assignments

Task/Homework	Schedule/Deadline
Concussion Silence	Sept 24th
Skeleto Mind Benderama#1	Oct 8th
Skeleto Mind Benderama#2	Oct 15th
Musculo Mind Benderama #1	Nov. 5th
Cardio Mind Benderama	Nov. 19th

Skeleto Mind Benderama #2

luv.sharma — Mon, 15 Oct 2007 20:23:17 CDT

In several cultures, bone deformation was a sign of social rank. For example, in the Mayan culture, head binding was done to give the skull a flattened forehead and a somewhat pointed top. Explain this in terms of Wolff's law. Provide examples.

Head Binding:

Foot Binding:

Wolff's law is a theory developed by the German Anatomist/Surgeon Julius Wolf in the 19th century. It says that if a bone in a healthy person or animal is placed under pressure it will adapt. If loading on a particular bone increases, the bone will remodel itself over time to become stronger to resist that sort of impact or pressure. The same thing happens with the opposite. With less strain on the bone, the bone will become weaker as it is metabolically costly to maintain and there is no stimulus for continued remodeling that is required to maintain bone mass (like astronauts who do not exercise in space). Bone will be deposited in places that are stressed often and is reabsorbed from places that are not stressed.

Examples: The raquet holding arm of tennis players becomes stronger than their other arm. Weightlifters who increase bone density because of their high weight training. Kick boxes (like Muah Thai) who repetitively kick things over and over again to increase the bone density. -sidenote- there is a sick video on youtube where a Muah Thai boxer breaks his opponent's leg by kicking it)

Wolff's Law: Bone is a living structure and adapts itself to its surroundings and demands placed on it. This was described and developed byJuliusWolff in 1892. In simple terms, bone grows in response to mechanical stress. The law helps us understand how to encourage bone remodeling and avoid bone stock loss.

Wolff's Law: function determines form
bones will adapt depending on the demands that are placed on the bones.

Wolff's law is directly related to the musculoskeletal system that gives the animals the ability to move to more favorable conditions by using the muscles and skeletal system to engage in movement.

Wolff's Law states that every change in the form and the function of a bone, or in its function alone, is followed by certain definite changes in its internal architecture and secondary alterations in its external conformation. It is also known as Delpech's law.

Wolff's Law: Healthy bones will adapt to the pressures it is placed under. If pressure on a bone is heavier, the bone will become stronger to be able to carry that sort of pressure. And if the pressure placed on a bone is less, the bone will become weaker because the mind will tell the body that it is not as important to form bone anymore.

Examples:

Foot binding in China. In the 10th century young girls at the age of 6 would wrap their feet tightly with cloth and then wear a shoe that was very strong. The shoe would be only 4 to 6 inches. When the foot begins to grow, the bones will break and reassemble in an arched position. This shows that bones can form according a very Strong mold it in placed in.
The desired result was a foot about 3 inches long, called a "golden lotus" (image below).
Sometimes a girl's feet were bound as early as five years old, in which case four of the toes would usually break within a year while the big toe would remain intact.
The results of foot binding have caused disabilities in some elderly Chinese women.
Head Flattening: The ancient Egyptians used to flatten or shape their children's heads to create a more cosmetically pleasing head shape. The Aboriginal tribes in Australia also were found to do the same. Even in the United States, the Chinookan tribes ( north west) and the Choctaw (south east) were known for such practices.
- the Choctaw used to strap the infants head to a cradle board to create the flat head.
- Choose infants because the ability for the skull to change shape easier

Infection was common. Girls would develop ingrown toenails and infections would lead to other diseases and in some cases resulted in death. In some cases, the ball of the foot began to grow into the heel. Such deformities later caused other medical problems such as breaking hips and other bones because the women weren't able to stand and move properly.

Fighter often kick objects to harden their bone to develop striking power to attack their opponents and which increases their bone density within that attack area while others may do this to reduce pain response on their striking tissue so they can have an increase of bone density.
In Eastern Burma, one of the Padaung Tribe (Long Neck Lady)'s customs is to wear bronze rings around their necks. Legend explains that the rings are symbols of charm against the dangers and bites (attacks) from tigers. This distorts the growth of their collarbones and make them look as if they have long necks - which they don't. This row of brass rings do not actually stretch their necks but in fact squash the vertebrae and collar bones. A woman generally has about twenty or more rings around her neck.

Process (Wikipedia)

First, each foot would be soaked in a warm mixture of herbs and animal blood. This concoction caused any narcotized flesh to fall off. Then her toenails were cut back as far as possible to prevent ingrowth and subsequent infections. To prepare her for what was to come next the girl's feet were delicately massaged. Silk or cotton bandages, ten feet long and two inches wide, were prepared by soaking them in the same blood and herb mix as before. Each of the toes were then broken and wrapped in the wet bandages, which would constrict when drying, and pulled tightly downwards toward the heel. There may have been deep cuts made in the sole to facilitate this. This ritual would be repeated every two days, with fresh bindings. Every time the bandages were rebound they would be pulled tighter making this process continually painful.

Astronauts who are in space will not apply pressure on their legs so their bones will become very weak. When they return to earth however, if they had such weak bones they would have trouble walking. So, in space, they must continuously exercise to ensure that their bones stay strong.
Flight doctors recommend fifteen minutes of exercise daily on seven to fourteen day missions and thirty minutes of exercise daily on thirty day missions.
Astronauts can use a treadmill as a form of resistance exercise, other forms of resistance exercise include: using a rowing machine or using a exercise bike.

More Examples:

Tennis players: bones in the racket holding arm become stronger than those of the other arm because so much repetitive stress is placed upon those bones in particular.
- eg: scapula's, shoulders, forearms
Weight lifters: increase in bone density from repeated practice and training for lifting heavy weights.
Astronauts are another example of this theory. They spend a long time in space, which will often return to Earth with weaker bones. This is because there is no gravity stressing force on the bones of the astronauts. Their bodies have reabsorbed much of the mineral that was previously in their bones.

Fighters: knuckle push-ups - increase the strength in the knuckles so as not to allow the fighter to hurt themselves or break otherwise easily breakable bones when they're fighting. Fighters will do things knuckle push-ups as a form of conditioning, for example, so the impacts of strikes are only supplementary conditioning, as in both sparring and striking practice as well as competitive contest. This is so the body can directly focus on technique and nervous recruitment and not tissue adaptation, which can be distracting.
Ball Sports: There is evidence that people who play ball sports have significantly lower stress fractures than people who do not play ball sports.
Soccer Players: Usually have stronger shins and feet because of the pressure of the ball and the contact with other feet and shins. Even though they were shin guards, the bone is till under a lot of pressure due to the clashing of legs.

Associated laws

In relation to soft tissue, Davis's Law explains how soft tissue remolds itself according to imposed demands.

Davis's Law is used in anatomy to describe how soft tissue models along imposed demands. It is the corollary to Wolff's Law. It is used in part to describe muscle-length relationships and to predict rehabilitation and postural distortion treatments as far as muscle length is concered.

Skeleto Mind Benderama #1

louisalx — Sun, 07 Oct 2007 22:10:01 CDT

Mrs. Bruso, a woman in her 80's is brought to the clinic with a fractured hip. X-rays reveal compression fractures in her lower vertebral column and extremely low bone density in her vertebrae, hip bones and femurs. What is the condition, cause and treatment?

Condition: Osteoporosis (porous bone); specifically: postmenopausal osteoporosis

What is Osteoporosis: A disease in which bones become fragile and more likely to break. It can progress painlessly until a bone breaks. Severe/Established Osteoporosis is where a patient suffers the breaking of bone form a standing/low height fall.

Diagnosis: The diagnosis of Osteoporosis done by measuring the bone mineral density of a patient. Dual energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) is used to do this and Osteoporosis is where the results of the DXA for the specific patient equal to or below 2.5 standard deviations of a chart established by the world health organisation.

Cause:
Age - After the age of 35, bone density in humans starts to decrease at a rate of 0.3-0.5% per year.
Gender - Females generally have lower bone density than men.
Race - Inherited in genetics
Diet - A diet that lacks calcium (ex. milk, cheese, and other dairy products)
Menopause - Women may lose 2-4% of bone density per year as a result of low estrogen levels after menopause.
Other causes:
-Lifestyle
-build (people of thin or small build are more susceptible to developing osteoporosis)
-chemotherapy (it can sometimes bring on menopause early)
-She may have had a traumatic event, such as falling down stairs.
-Osteoporosis occurs when an imbalance occurs between new bone formation and old bone resorption.The body may failto form enough new bone, or too much old bone may be reabsorbed, or both.
-Sustained fracture before being aware of the disease being present
-The leading cause of osteoporosis is a lack of certain hormones, particularly estrogen in women and androgen in men.
-Long time use of steriods such as prednisone
-Inadequate intake of calcium and vitamin D, lack of weight-bearing exercise, andother age-related changes in endocrine functions (in addition to lack of estrogen).
-Arthritis-conditions where there is damage to joints in the body. Specific: osteoarthritis which is a degenerative joint disease that occurs following trauma to the joints following an infection or a result to aging.

Signs and Symptoms:
-Osteoporosis itself has no specific symptoms, but the main effect of osteoporosis is the increased risk of fracture. Osteoporotic fractures are those that occur in situations where healthy people would not normally break a bone. These are viewed as fragility fracrtures. The average fragility fracture occurs in the vertebral column, hip, and wrist.
-Vertbral compression fractures have several main symtoms: pain, numbness, tingling, weakness, and losing controll of urine or stool.

Bone Mineral Density Test:
A bone mineral density test is an easy reliable test that measures the density, or thickness, of your bones. It measures the amount of mineral (calcium) in a specific area of bone. The more mineral you have in the bone measured, the greater your bone density or bone mass.
A BMD test can:

Measure the density of your bones
Detect osteoporosis before a fracture occurs
Help to predict your chances of fracturing in the future
Monitor the effectiveness of treatments for osteoporosis

Treatment:
Medication: bisphosphonates or newer drugs called teriparatide and strontium renelate. Minocycline, an antibiotic related to tetracycline can also help, as it is inexpensive, has been shown to increase bone mineral density, improve bone strength and formation, and slow bone resorption.
Excercise: walking and jogging to bear their own body weight for bones to grow stronger. It will reduce the risk of falls by strengthing the mucscles on the legs and back. In a sitting position with the back against the wall and slowly squatting will strengthen the legs and back.
Nutrition : Calcium (around 1200-1500 mg of calcium should be taken per day) and Vitamin D (shown to reduce fractures by 25% in older people) *(important: excess protein is bad)
Quit tobacco smoking and drink alcohol in moderation (or quite in general)
-Surgery- Two sergical methods of treating osteoporosis is 1) a vertebroplasty (relieves pain from spinal compression fractures. Injection of cement like mixture into crushed aread) or 2) a kyphoplasty which is used to restore vertabrae to their normal shape. (balloon device inserted to fractured vertabrae-cement like mix is poured into the spot where the balloon takes up space).
-Metal Screws: holds the bones together while healing
-replacement: remove ends of femur and replace with metal prosthesis
-Total Hip Replacement: If arthrititis/injury has damaged the joints and it affects the function.

Increased Risks: Bone fracture. Women with osteoporosis are at high risk for "Fragility Fractures," fractures resulting from situations where a healthy person would normally not break a bone.
Old age creates increased risks of falling and thereby more fractures. Impaired vision due to aging also increases the likelihood of falling.

Prevention:

Get your daily recommended amounts of calcium and vitamin D
Engage in regular weight-bearing exercise - exercise that will improve the strength of the bones and the muscles around the bones such as walking, low-impact aerobics and tennis. (Exercise and succificient nutrients throughout your teenage period will help delay degeneration of the bones.
Whenever exercising any contact or regular exercise/sports, you could where hip protectors that have protection pads on the side, since most injuries occur on the side of the hip. It should reduce the impact of the fall.
Avoid smoking and excessive alcohol consumption.
Talk to your healthcare provider about bone health
When appropriate, have a bone density test and take medication

Medication:
- In serious cases of Osteoporosis, biphosphonate can be used.
- Raloxifene, Alendronate, Risedronate, ibandronate, and Calcitonin are some medications that can be taken to help increase bone density and decrease the chances of accidents.
-Steroid-induced osteoporosis (SIOP) arises due to use of glucocorticoids.
-Barbiturates (probably due to accelerated metabolism of vitamin D) and some other enzyme-inducing antipileptics.
-Proton pump inhibitors - these drugs inhibit the production of stomach acid, which is thought to interfere with calcium absorption.
Theses medications like Raloxifene, are a "Selective estrogen receptor modulators". It is classed as a medication that acts on the estrogen receptor.

Other Facts:
-1/3 women over the age of 50 will have osteoporosis.
- 1/12 men over the age of 50 will have osteoporosis.
- Fractures are most common on the vertabrae, hips and wrist.

Classroom

mrBUXTON — Wed, 19 Sep 2007 23:50:37 CDT

Welcome to the Human Bio class wiki!

The purpose of this wiki is to help you learn more about the human body and how it functions in exercise, sports and extreme environments.

This wiki is our central meeting place to plan and discuss assignments throughout the school year. Check back regularly to review any new announcements, review the syllabus, get tips from the study guides, and ask a question for other students or the instructor. Don't forget to see who's in the Student Spotlight this week!

Tips for Building a Wiki:

Rename your home page to something more specific about your classroom
Add images and widgets (like YouTube videos and polls)
Invite other students to help! (Click on "Invite others" in the Page Toolbox)
Use person-to-person messages to stay in touch with your classmates and teacher.

Need more? Add graphics and flourishes that match your wiki design (they're free from Paint Splatters)

Unit 2 Tissues and the Integumentary System

mrBUXTON — Tue, 18 Sep 2007 20:47:57 CDT

Definition: Integument - external covering of the body

Functions of the Integumentary System
1. Body Temperature Regulation
2. Protection
3. Sensation
4. Excretion & Absorption
5. Synthesis of Vit. D

Study Guides

mrBUXTON — Tue, 18 Sep 2007 10:10:36 CDT

How to create/use these study guides

See also: Assignments | The Syllabus | Announcements

The Syllabus

wetpaint — Tue, 18 Sep 2007 09:28:27 CDT

Syllabus for this term:

[type here, or attach document to this page]

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See also: Announcements | Assignments | Study Guides

Announcements

wetpaint — Tue, 18 Sep 2007 09:28:27 CDT

News:

Updates:

See also: The Syllabus | Assignments | Study Guides

Student Spotlight

wetpaint — Tue, 18 Sep 2007 09:28:27 CDT

This is how a spotlight page could look: Use it "as is," modify it, or delete all the text and start over with your own idea. It's a wiki page, so you can change it any time you want.

Student of the Week

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Why he/she is being honored:

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[Use this section to say "way to go" to this week's student! Add photos, videos, or words of congrats. Or, send them a message by going to their profile page...]

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Enter their name here, and describe why they should be recognized.

See also: Announcements | The Syllabus | Assignments | Study Guides

Group FAQ

wetpaint — Tue, 18 Sep 2007 09:28:27 CDT

Suggestions:

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